A reflection of fantasies mirrored on the skin. The very soul can be read on that page. That which reflects a person's innermost feelings, dreams and desires, torment and fulfillment. It is a multi-colored universal language. It acts as a means of exchange with others. It communicates to the eye, which caresses and unveils it. The skin is an envelope which both reveals and conceals.

It communicates to the doctor and dermatologist who can read a very wide range of psychological conflicts. The skin, rosy and supple like that of a child, radiates health and happiness. Sickness and misery when it is rough and bruised. It indicates death when it is pale and cold. White scabs and red weal reveal stress and anxiety. Impatience itches and goose bumps are an expression of repulsion.

It is the mirror of the soul projecting pleasure as well as pain. Since when, and how come is it that the skin is the reflector of the human soul? Is it psychological or is there a link between the brain and the skin? Modern research indicates that the brain and skin originate from the same tissue. From the very first month of gestation in the womb, the embryo is covered with a protective layer (ectoderm). This membrane envelops virtually all the body- the skin, sensory organs and the brain. Later on, the brain unites with the nerves to form the grey matter of the fetus; the skin is not included in this stage however it maintains close connections with the brain.

At birth, the baby's first contact with the outside world is through the skin. At the first moment, in a hostile and new environment, the baby cries and shivers, then calms down as it establishes contact with its mother's skin whose vibrations are familiar to his. Thus, the first contact of a human with the outside world is through his skin. We learn how to feel and learn from the outside through touch and vision. Then as grown-ups we learn how to understand and appreciate what we see outside of ourselves. We become aware of the existence of a difference between us and the rest of the outside world. We become aware of the existence of a barrier between others and us. And it is up to us how we present ourselves to others.

We can choose to be different, or walk like the rest. We try to set our own individual limits and in trying to be different we mark ourselves to stand out. Tattooing, a form of self-expression has accompanied us since the evolution of man. It is a universal socio-cultural language. A conversation of shapes colors and sacred meanings. Civilizations from all around the world have come across tattooing in one form or another and considered it an act of prayer, honor, bravery, patience and commitment. The Mayas used the tattoo to become divine, and would disfigure themselves to the point of ugliness in an attempt to distance them from the rest of humanity, and become closer to their gods who in their eyes are mysterious and frightening. The Caduveo Indians felt foolish without decorations. In southeast Zaire in Africa, the women of the Tabwa tribe are not allowed to get married unless they have undergone a ritual scarification. In the Cameroon, members of the Bafia tribe feel that they are on the level with animals without scarification. In one form or another, trying to be different and trying to express one's innermost feelings is a basic instinct that has accompanied man across the millennia. Today, tattooing is more than just a decorative ornament praised by some and criticized by others. It is a socio-psychological manifestation of the soul on the skin for all to see.

The naked body is a silent one. It offers no conversation. It is like all the rest. A tattooed body offers a conversation to the eye easily. It communicates ideas, feelings and emotions in a dialogue without words. A dialogue of images shapes and color. The tattoo is a sacred art. It is the embodiment of a belief, a strong conviction for life. It is not a garment nor a temporary make up, but rather a life commitment. It is simply the expression of true belief.

The image people have of a tattooed person is that of a sleazy degenerate, an outlaw, or a biker. Someone who belongs to a marginal group, a hippy or a punk. The tattoo subject always triggers something in people whether revulsion or admiration. There is always a reaction based on a personal experience. Very few are the people who have no reaction towards the subject. All these factors cast a negative shadow on tattooing however; this form of art has persisted throughout history, and is enjoying a major comeback now in the nineties. The streets have become a mobile gallery of skin art offering everyone a glimpse into the world long considered underground. Elaborate monochrome patterns, intricate designs and delicate faux jewelry, fantasy creatures, monsters from the world of death, sickness and pain, and images inspired by van Gogh, Botticelli, and Picasso. Panoramic views of landscapes, still-lifes, and portraits of famous rock-stars and beloved ones.

It is an art, which the tattooed person forces on his beholder his own ideas and himself without compromise. It is a way of life. A form of communication and a means of being distinguished from the rest. A tattoo puts its owner in a special class of his own. The symbolic value of a tattoo differs from person to person depending on their mood, and social background. The tattoo is a statement one makes of him in the eyes of others. "The regard of others is enough for me to be who I am, not for myself, certainly, but for others," as Jean Paul Sartre wrote. The shock value of tattooing is undeniably one of the main reasons that drive more people to the buzzing needles of the tattoo artist. This shock value lies in the fact that tattoos hurt, and this means blood, pain, and endurance. All this added to the mastery of the tattoo artist who was able to create a language under the skin.

In another sense, the tattoo is a form of rebellion against the ultimate scandal, death. It is in one-way or another an attempt to defy death. The tattoo remains on the skin until the body decays, or if tanned could last for thousands of years...

History
Finding the remains

No one really knows exactly how and when the tattoo process was discovered. Perhaps it is the result of some accident, or a God-sent intuition. However, the tattoo has followed man throughout history and in all civilizations. Of course it is very difficult to prove that tattooing existed in prehistoric times never the less, there are several indicators
Which help prove it. Prehistoric paintings in the caves of Lascaux and Eyzies in the Dordogne in France are proof of an early tendency towards adornment and decoration. In 1991 a Neolithic hunter was found trapped high in the Similaun Glaciers in the Italian Alps. This Iceman has been preserved for fifty-three hundred years bearing tattoos on his back and behind his knee. And thus, it happens that the oldest intact specimen of mankind is also the oldest tattooed individual.

Almost all remains of prehistoric man indicate the existence of some form of primitive art, and most of it is related to the decoration of the body. Neanderthal man used to inscribe red ochre patterns on the bones of the dead. This act is linked to the idea of survival after death, and the color red symbolized blood that means life. The body of the Shameless Venus (Venus Impudique) dating from the middle Magdalanian period and is now exhibited in the Musee de l'Homme, bears red ochre markings on its bones.

Contrary to common belief, the art of tattooing flourished in the Middle East long before it was discovered in the islands of the Pacific. The Egyptians are among the first civilizations to adopt this form of art as a royal symbol. The mummy of an Egyptian priestess of the goddess Hathor whose name was Amunet, and dating from the Eleventh Dynasty (Middle Kingdom) who lived in Thebes around two thousand years B.C. bears simple and graphic tattoos which are very similar to those found on the Iceman. Another Egyptian priestess, the famous goddess of Tassili N'Ajjer (Inaouanrhat) bears evidence of body adornment. There are tattoos and scarifications on her shoulders, breasts, thighs, and calves. Other evidence of ancient tattooing exists on the figurine of Nagada and Ballas from the upper Nile. These carry black zigzag motifs on a red ochre background, obviously the sign of fertility. Other numerous Peruvian, Egyptian and Asian mummies dating from the second dynasty were discovered in a tomb at Deir El-Berbery. These mummies were tattooed on the arms, legs, soles of the feet, and pubic area.

So it seems that the tattooing process did not occur as a pastime or as something done instantaneously. On the contrary the technique was far more laborious and painful than what it is today. Employing instruments and techniques that would make a modern electric tattoo artist quiver with anxiety. Ancient Maori warriors actually chiseled designs into the skin using two-foot long bamboo sticks pointed as needles at the top. The Eskimo drew threads darkened with soot under the skin.

It can be noted that wherever tattooing is concerned along any timeline in the history of mankind, and in no matter which culture it exists, it has always been a symbol to mark the out of the ordinary. Be it a chief, or somebody of a noble and ruling class, a warrior belonging to a certain tribe, or a slave. Tattoos have always had a sort of a special meaning to its bearer in any community. It is a form of distinguishing the chosen few from the rest of the masses. To back this up, archaeologists in 1948 have uncovered a frozen burial mound in Pazyryk, Siberia. In the mound they have found a five thousand year old body of a Scythian chieftain. A nomadic warrior preserved in the ice with elaborately tattooed skin. These tattoos covered arms, one leg and all across his chest and back. The designs were or sewed into his skin to form fish, sheep, rams, and many other mythical creatures. These tattoos are thought to be signs of the hunter's noble birth.

TRUE BELIEF, FEAR AND MAGIC
Around the year 1000 B.C. tattooing has made its mark virtually around the globe. Probably spreading from the Middle East by way of trade across land and sea to China, India, Japan and the Pacific islands. So far this is the only truly documented history regarding the origin of this form of art. No records whatsoever have been found in other parts of the world dating as far back as the ones already discovered in the Middle East. It is possible however that tattooing really existed in pre-historic Japan and Alaska. Could it be that the incised faces of statues with lines and different markings be depictions of real tattoos executed at that time? Or is it a coincidence that explorers observed the same markings many centuries later on the faces and bodies of Native Americans?

Throughout history, tattooing has been related to religious, military, psychological, magical and social symbolism. There are some civilizations that named themselves after the art of tattooing. Two tribes of the British Isles the Picts and the Britons actually derived their names from a fierce devotion to tattooing. They tattooed their faces and bodies with colorful images and motifs that terrified their enemies. The Picts have their name after the Roman soldiers who called them as such. The name "Pict" is a Latin translation (picti) of a Celtic word "birth" or "breiz", which means paint. The Roman soldiers gave this name to the Gallic soldiers who had the habit of undressing in preparation for battle. They did this to get rid of their heavy clothes on one hand and to startle their enemies with their fully tattooed faces and bodies with tribal designs and magical symbols on the other. The Britons derived their name from a Breton word that means, "painted in various colors".

The Roman soldiers in the third century A.D. who got in touch with the Picts were very impressed by the tribe's exotic art, and so they returned to their home countries with tattoos of their own. At that point there was a newly converted Christian Emperor Constantine who issued a decree banning the process.

The cause behind the anxiety generated by tattoos today, especially in the western cultures lies in the Bible and the Christian religion. The body created in the image of God and is the temple of the soul, and therefore it must not be violated. Unfortunately religious texts are not always unambiguous to the subject. The Old Testament book of Leviticus (19:28) bluntly states, " You shall not make any cuttings in your flesh on account of the dead or tattoo any marks upon you: I am the Lord." In contrast to this, several New Testament passages indicate that Christ's followers identified themselves by tattoos on their foreheads ( Galatians 6:17; Revelations 7:3 and 22:4). Similarly, the Book of St. John states that Jehovah allowed the people to etch on their faces the tau cross, which is the divine seal of the Judeo-Christian religion. A "T" which the Hebrews tattooed on their foreheads when they fled to the Promised Land represents it. After the Hebrews fled with Moses from Egypt, tattooing was forbidden again because the Egyptians used that to mark them as their slaves.

According to the other religions of the world, like for example the Copts, Buddhists, and Indians, the everlasting quality of the tattoo enables them to establish contact with the after world and in a positive way. They regarded tattooing as a way of prayer and sacrifice. They also believe that by inscribing magical symbols on certain locations of their body, they ward off evil spirits and become closer to their gods. The Islamic religion, on the other hand, according to what the Koran states, tattoos are forbidden for they are a sign of evil. They make it impossible for the tattooed person to pray properly since the body should be purified prior to prayer. Never the less, the tattoo flourished Among Moslem people encouraged by the belief that any markings on the skin will be removed in the fiery purification process before the soul enters paradise.

The first Christians to start tattooing again were in Gaul. They started the habit of tattooing a cross as a sign of recognition and loyalty to each other. The church, backed by Pope Adrian 1 however, in 787 A.D. banned the act accusing it of being a barbaric and satanic ritual. Ignoring all that, tattooing remained and continued to be practiced as an underground culture. Later on in the middle Ages, which is an era, characterized with great fear and mysticism, tattooing was still considered the work of Satan and declined remarkably. A gruesome story prevailed in those days, which led to a major come back of the tattoo in the years that followed. The story was passed on from the Battle of Hastings in 1066 where the identification of King Harold's mutilated body depended on the tattoos, which he had. And those were only known to his lover, Eadgyth, who was brought down to the battlefield to identify him. Based on that, later on in Europe, the tattoo prevailed widely among the Crusaders who were fighting for the Holy Land. They tattooed themselves with the sign of the cross as a form of identification, and to make sure they got a Christian burial if they died in battle. Funnily, in later centuries, Christian pilgrims visiting the Holy land tattooed themselves with a cross as a sign of faith and a souvenir at the same time. And there are a number of sixteenth and seventeenth century texts, which explicitly describe the process. Even the Prince of Wales, in the nineteenth century and several members of the Russian royal family collected similar tattoos during their visits to Jerusalem. This Christian ritual, as a matter of fact, is carried on until this very day.

These facts prove that tattooing has long been considered the symbol of classifying people. It determined the believer and the non-believer, the pure and the impure, the free man and the slave, the prisoner, the criminal, prostitute, vagabond, and the upright man. Whether it is a symbol of wealth or poverty, social class and status, the tattoo is always a symbol of classification. It simply defines people.

SLAVERY
The custom of tattooing slaves runs a very long distance in the history of man in many communities. One of the most famous is in the Middle East. The Samians were one of the mostly tattooed people mainly because they were enslaved by the Roman Empire. They tattooed them on their foreheads, but later on they discovered that the mark could be hidden with hair, so they tattooed them right between the eyes. The Romans mockingly called their slaves "men of letters". A proverb from that time stated that there was no one better read than a Samian. That is because these people were extensively tattooed. Another term was also applied to those people, caelatos, which means the engraved, because their bodies resembled engraved works of art. African slaves were branded on their chests with a red-hot iron. They were usually tattooed with a fleur-de-lis. This mark was used to identify runaway slaves as a property belonging to someone or to the state. The same type of design was used centuries later in France. Thieves and prisoners were identified with a fleur-de lis, or the letter "V" on the right shoulder. Galley slaves were tattooed with three letters "GAL". In Alexander Dumas's novel "The Three Musketeers", Milady de Winter was tattooed with a fleur-de-lis. In 1832 the French government issued a law banning this process, but it was not until twenty years later that it was properly terminated and replaced by police records. In Greece the same practice was applied on prisoners. They branded their convicts with an owl, the bird dedicated to their goddess Minerva.

LIVE ART
Throughout history, wherever explorers wandered, there are reports of exotic people with markings etched in their skin. In the thirteenth century Marco Polo in his book "Travels" noted that there are etched populations somewhere on the shores of Asia. He was astounded by the fact that these people practiced such an exotic art. He noted that in Yunnan, an area in southern China there were, " bands or fillets pricked in black on men's arms and legs...It is considered a piece of elegance and the sign of gentility to have this black band." Referring to what are now Laos and Burma he noted, " The whole of the people, or nearly so, have their skin marked with the needle in patterns representing lions, dragons, and what not.... and they look on it as a token of elegance, so that those who have the largest amount of embroidery are regarded with greatest admiration."
It was the discovery of the New World that initiated a new world craze foe the art of tattooing. It seems that this art was universal all across the American continent, particularly among the Eskimos and Native American Indians. However there are no signs indicating that this art prevailed among the Hopi or the Aztec. The early explorers view these tattooed people with much awe that they even captured a few living specimens and took them back to Europe. And indeed, in 1566, in Germany, people from the city of Ausburg advertised an Eskimo woman and a child from the Newfoundland whose, "marks cannot be taken off again with any substance." Soon enough tattooed natives brought to Europe were exhibited in saloons and drawing rooms for appreciation. One noted explorer Captain James Cook, probably the first explorer to bring a live tattooed specimen from the new world to Europe, is credited with awakening and popularizing Western interest in tattoos. Prince Jeoly of Meangis Island is probably the first tattooed Polynesian transported to Europe, more specifically to England where he died after a short while of small pox. A parade of others followed including Omai of Tahiti in the 1770s transported by Cook himself. And from that day on a new era of this old art has begun. The era of the "tattooed human spectacle". A phenomenon that is carried on until today where inking and tattooing for show in conventions and street shows, a major pastime and a profession to earn money and gain fame.

It was Cook's trip to New Zealand that led to the discovery of the ultimate art of the Maori, the moko. Mokos are tattoos, which are elaborate black spirals, stripes, and patterns chiseled into the faces of Maori men and women. This process required great skills, and consumed too much time not to mention the extreme pain one has to undergo. This type of art was highly appreciated among these people and great care was dedicated to preserving the heads of their decorated murdered enemies. This created a craze for this art among the Europeans, and as a consequence, the demand for moko art rose. The Maori traded the moko heads for guns and powder reservedly at first, and then in greater quantities. To satisfy the growing demand of the Europeans, more moko art was produced and more heads were cut off. Prisoners were tattooed by force and their heads removed and sent to Europe. Finally in 1831 the colonial governor passed law prohibiting such a trade and which made the possession of Maori heads a crime. And thus, with the authorities' disapproval, and the missionaries who strongly discouraged the practice, moko tattooing tapered off. By the turn of the century, this custom virtually died among the Maori themselves however to be revived again due to the growing interest of contemporary tattoo artists. Moko designs and tribal motifs began enjoying a growing demand in Europe and America.

Back in Europe, at the time of the French revolution there was a growing craze for tattooing in certain circles. There is a well-known story from that time illustrating the embarrassment the king of Sweden had to face in 1810. As a young republican, Bernadotte had tattooed on his left arm "Death to the King". He was a young republican lieutenant and a passionate Jacobian. In later years he became king and in 1810 he was obliged to expose his arm to the doctor to undergo a bloodletting for an attack of uremia. The doctor was stunned at the sight of such a provocative tattoo. There is no record of the reaction of his wife Desiree Clary who married Bernadotte after Napoleon I had left her, nor of the loyal valet who was sworn to secrecy.

This ever-growing craze for tattooing did not stop at the common people. Surprisingly, several governments and political parties for a variety of reasons adopted it. Prisoners in Nazi concentration camps were branded like animals. The tattoo was a registration number corresponding to the camp, and preceded by a "D" if the prisoner was Jewish. The technique used was a stamp, which contains removable numbers or letters made up of tiny needles dipped in ink before being injected into the skin.

Roman soldiers used to tattoo the name of their general or a drawing of a sparrow -hawk (a symbol of their military function) on the back of their hand.

During the reign of Hitler in the first part of the twentieth century, members of the SS group were tattooed with the "SS" sign followed by the blood type of the person under the left armpit. This was to ensure that they would receive more medical attention if wounded in battle and a reference to identify mutilated bodies of the group. Moreover this process helped identify deserters.

In ancient Greece, many leading citizens, and particularly those in power were tattooed. Architects, for example were tattooed with a triangle on the left biceps. Priests with a sun on the thigh, and interpreters with a parrot on the chest. In Nubia and ancient Egypt musicians, dancers, and prostitutes were tattooed with erotic designs on the pubis and thighs. This, as it has happened, was the basis on which later tattoo fans collected their art particularly amidst the French craftsmen who bore the sign of their profession on their biceps very much like the Japanese firemen. These craftsmen or journeymen would travel from country to country all around Europe looking for work. The tattoo they bore was in way or another a form of certificate describing their profession. It the only one visual form understood by all people and most unlikely to get lost in any form of accident. This method of identification cannot be forged, and bore witness to their qualifications. It enabled them to find work in their domain regardless of their communication skills with respect to the language of the country. Dechambre's dictionary provides some examples of these signs and what they meant. Here are some of the most common many of which still survive until today:

Stone carvers tattoo compasses, a right angle, a chisel, and a plumb line,
Carpenters wear a plane and pliers
Butchers display a bull's head on crossed knives
Barbers tattoo a comb and crossed scissors
Bakers, a loaf, scales, and kneading trough
Cobblers, an owl and a boot
Blacksmiths exhibit a hammer and the anvil
Sailors' motifs are the most famous: the anchor
Vine growers, a bunch of grapes
Gunsmiths, a pistol

In the year 1791 a revolutionary law, Le Chapelier law, resulting from the Allard Decree abolished these guilds of craftsmen. And gradually, these symbols of journeymen were forgotten. Except for a few who remained faithful to the tradition and continued using these symbols as signs of their profession.

Tattooing was not restricted to the common and lower classes only. This form of art affected even the bourgeoisie and the nobility. It was the young Prince of Wales, the future King Edward VII, who endorsed tattooing for the nobility. Queen Victoria's children were tattooed during their trip to Yokohama in Japan in 1882.

London tattooists were widely known as the best in the field. People like Sutherland MacDonald; the "Raphael" of tattooists was particularly skilled in the Japanese art of tattooing. His clients included Edward VII, George II of Greece, Tsar Nicholas, The King of Denmark, and the Sultan of Jahore.

At the time Europe was being fascinated by the marvel of tattooing, the Japanese were experiencing a reevaluation of the process within their own culture. An exclusively female ritual, Ainu of Hokaido, was well practiced over centuries. In this ritual the women tattooed the backs of their hands and around their mouths. The legend of Japan's first emperor, Jimmu Tenno, talks about his famous tattoos. This however did not influence the coming emperors to enhance their physical appearance. Instead tattooing was used to torture prisoners as early as the fifteenth century A.D. after which it continued as a law passing on and off for the next twelve hundred years. Like other forms of punishment, lopping off an ear or a hand, tattooing left a permanent mark on the person identifying misbehavior and a punishment. Perhaps that is what inspired the Japanese prostitutes of the seventeenth century to acquire small tattoos themselves. And this double association with criminality and prostitution relegated tattooing to the Japanese underworld.

It was not until a famous fourteenth century Chinese novel celebrating a group of 108 heroic rebels many of whom sported full body tattoos, was republished in Japan and became the catalyst for a new tattoo craze over there. This novel, Suikoden (called The Water Margin in English, and All Men Are Brothers in Pearl S. Buck 1933 version) became widely available in Japan's mid eighteenth century Edo period. And by the start of the next century editions of this book illustrated by famous woodblock artists were in huge demand. The heroes in this book inspired hundreds of Japanese people to acquire similar tattoos. Not small ones, which sat on the arm or leg, but huge artwork flowing all over, the chest arms and back. Thus the complex forms of Japanese figurative art were applied on a new medium, the body.

This formalized lust lasted until 1872 when Emperor Mutsuhito decided to open Japan to the rest of the world. So he officially prohibited the process of tattooing based on the fact that it is an embarrassing sign of barbarism. Ironically it was the foreigners who were mostly impressed with this art. Though it has resurfaced again from time to time, it was forced illegal until after World War II. After which it was no longer illegal however it became exclusively associated with gangsters or Yakuza, the only segment of society willing to risk what could only result in social ostracism. Today although tattooing is still considered a deviant practice by most Japanese, the new generations of young Japanese have come under the influence of the west. A macabre point of interest is that Japan possesses the only known collection of tattooed human hides. These are preserved at the Medical Pathology Museum of Tokyo University. The over a hundred skins were collected as masterpieces of the art with the complete cooperation of the tattooed and their families.

Having been restricted to the lower classes of society and to the geishas for a long time the Japanese tattooing was awarded a fine art status in the thirteenth century, during the Edo period. Never the less it remained mostly a lower class practice used by marginal groups as a form of protest against the strict rules of the feared Togugawa Kakaufu military regime. At the same time many other circles were very fond of this art and utilized it to enhance their roles in their profession. Kabuki actors expressed themselves by means of their body art, whereby the graphics were chosen from a variety of motifs and the color adhered to the rigid code of the yin-yang symbolism. The Japanese fishermen believed that by wearing a tattoo on their leg they are protected from dangerous fish. The Japanese firemen played a very significant role in the history of tattooing in the world and particularly in Japan. The frequent outbreaks of fire in the Japanese cities and towns mainly constructed of wood and paper required a strong and highly courageous team of firemen. The members of these Special Forces were easily identified by their flashy colorful coats of red and yellow the colors of elaborate dragons and fire and clouds. These pictorial motifs were repeated under the there coats on the backs of the firemen as a symbolic Medal of Honor and bravery in the face of fire and death. It was also considered as a protection against the dangers faced by these firemen in confrontation with fire. As well as being the symbol of power and god of thunder, the dragon is a hybrid creature embracing elements of both fire and water. Firemen awarded tattoos of the dragon enjoyed a privileged status and were highly admired by the various members of society. The soldiers also tattooed themselves to appear tough and warlike imitating the hero of Suikoden, the Chinese story of ninety volumes describing the deeds of a hero with very high values and a protector of the oppressed.

Tattooing along with engraving subsequently became the most popular and representative arts in Japan. This worried the Japanese authorities in the 1870s that feared that this body art would discredit the country in the face of the foreigners who on the contrary highly appreciated this art. It was not until 1945 after WWII and with the arrival of the U.S. soldiers to Japan that this law was abolished and the practice flourished again and this time worldwide. Never the less, today in Japan tattooing is not widely practiced. Those who do usually belong to some sort of a closed circle usually an underground community like for example the Yakuza. These deliberately designed their tattoos which usually covered the whole of their body stopping at the wrist and the at the knee. This is because during the first part of the twentieth century tattooing was forbidden and was a crime causing severe punishment. So tattooists made sure not to expose any parts of the body. Those who took the risk of being tattooed entered a written agreement with the tattoo artist on the theme based on the amount of money to be paid.

In Japan the art of tattooing follows a precise ritual. The colors used follow those used in the art of engraving, red, green, indigo and yellow. Mixing and diluting the inks achieve the different shades of these colors. The art is still carried on manually mixing pain and pleasure. Both slowness and silence are the basic parts of the ritual. Tea breaks and hot baths are the only interruptions of these sessions. The creation of these luxurious skin costumes can take years. This ritualistic approach differs from that of the west, which is more commercialized one hand, and contrary to the Japanese approach, is an assemblage of many small and different tattoos.

After that tattooing gained great recognition all around the world. Many of the great Japanese and Chinese masters moved to the west to satisfy the growing demand there. They opened saloons in the large ports and major cities like New York, San Francisco, London, Hamburg, and soon gained worldwide reputation amongst tattooing fans and artists. Up until the end of the 19th century, many tattooed Europeans would display themselves at circuses and fairs. It was also a fad that consumed Europe's upper classes. Detailed newspaper accounts of the royal tattoos of Kaiser Wilhelm in Germany, Princess Waldemar of Denmark, King George of Greece, and most male members of the English royal family. Even Winston Churchill and his mother were tattooed. In the USA the Barnum circus was famous for its Living Picture Gallery where Prince Constantine displayed his 388 tattoos. In France, Edmond Faucher exhibited himself as the most tattooed person in the world. He charged curious lookers fifty centimes. He had tattoos all over his body including the palms of his hands, the insides of his ears, and his tongue. In Spain, a so-called Ricardo exhibited himself at the Santander Fair, after serving a twenty-year sentence of hard labor for murder. He recounted how it took him six years to get fully tattooed. Women as well started to get into the scene. For example Salome, the "blue lady" who was an oriental lady tattooed in fourteen colors. These men and women who exhibited their body art added spices to their erotic attraction by telling stories of their heroic adventures of how they were captured by savages and tattooed against their own will.

Up until the beginning of the 20th century, the British were the pioneers of the art of tattooing. England being a major sea port in Europe and its colonizing of America and its natives helped much in keeping it at the top. By the turn of the century, the British found themselves in competition with the Americans mostly because of the invention of the electric tattoo machine. In 1891 Samuel O'Reilly patented the electric tattoo machine, which was a cross between a dentist's drill and a ballpoint pen. This invention led to the modern high-speed machines used today which are capable of between 2000 and 3000 pricks per minute as compared to 90 or 120 hand tapped pickings of a Japanese master. This machine revolutionalized tattooing techniques. The number of tattooed people rose up dramatically. Tattooing was commercialized and macho vulgarity took over refinement and good taste. At the same time O'Reilly's colleague Lew Albertis created sheets of standard tattoo designs, which could be sold over and over again to tattoo artists all over the country. This in tattoo terminology is called "Flash" allowed every tattoo artist to speed up production by simply tracing ready-made designs. However this did not stop the creative process, which goes into the custom art of tattooing, it was simply made to speed up work and only features some of the most common designs and symbols prevalent at the time. And because of the new machine, the entire process became a lot less painful, and a lot faster. The era of modern tattooing was at hand.

Since these two new inventions, at the turn of the century the art of tattooing underwent a tremendous shake down in terms of its popular appeal. The initial admiration for the art among the elite died and gave way to a new class of tattoo enthusiasts. Stories began to appear in the media linking tattooing to criminal behavior, venereal diseases, loose morals, in short everything the emerging middle class was trying to distance it from. Shortly after that there was a renewal of general interest in this art among the younger generations in their teens and twenties when cosmetic tattooing became a fashion. In 1913 George Burchett, an English tattoo artist, estimated that at least half of his business was devoted to fashionable women demanding to have their eyebrows permanently arched and dyed, their lips and cheeks reddened.

It was back in the 1920s and 1930s that the cliché of the tattooed freak solidified into the present day prejudice. During the Depression more men and women were getting tattooed just in order to exhibit themselves at shows and carnivals in return for money. These were the successors of the Native Americans, Maori warriors, and Marquesans originally brought to Europe for exhibition. They were the only examples of tattooed individuals encountered by the middle class mainstream, so the association of tattoos with outsiders developed quite naturally. It became natural enough to be adopted as the insignia of the self-styled outcasts and outlaws.

TATTOOS FOR THE ANTI-SOCIAL
Tattooing come into fashion periodically. However fashionable, it has always been widespread amongst marginal groups. In England, in the 1950s, the teddy boys and the rockers showed a renewed interest in it. In the 1960s the hippies took a great interest in distant cultures viewing them from a different way from earlier colonials. They usually selected an Asian culture totally immersing them in the way of life of the selected country in order to identify with it and become a part of it, having rejected the values of their own culture. For them, these Asian people are their distant brothers who have succeeded where their own society has failed in retaining the true and simple values of humanity, kindness and brotherhood. Tattooing went along with ear and nose piercing, and this in Hindu style was part of this integration process. The Hell's Angels adopted tattooing as their symbol of brotherhood as well. Skulls wearing winged helmets and huge aggressive eagles were part of their accessories along with their silver and turquoise Navajo rings not to mention the ultimate indispensable machine, the Harley Davidson.

This was the extent of tattooing until the 1960s and 1970s almost exclusively the phenomenon of the gangsters and deviants. At that time tattooists rarely communicated with each other nor did they seek to establish the art of tattooing as something distinguished from the procedure of tattooing. To the majority it was simply a decent paying job on the decadent wild side. The flash displayed in shops went relatively unchanged for decades with very little innovation or creation. It was simply a matter of picking up a design off the wall and having it executed. Sailing ships, American flags, wild eagles along with some religious iconography. Most of all the classic snarling and clawing black panther, which in fact is still in fashion until this very day. Busty girls in every state of undress were another type of flash along with a wide array of roses, hearts and daggers alongside with name emblazoned banners. Color choices were narrow at that time with red, green, yellow, and black predominating. The point was to be quick and legible despite the occasional tattooist who would encourage clients to get quality custom work, a broad and artistic market, which did not exist outside Japan.

In the 1980s the punks changed their appearance in the most outrageous manner. Loud colors, anarchic haircuts, pierced noses, ears, lips, and eyebrows. Arms and legs tattooed with skulls and images of death violence, and destruction. It was a rebellion against the norms of society expressed through neo-Nazi slogans and images of hate and arrogance. All these were a means to provoke, and deliberately demonstrate their hate and the desire to shock through violence.

All these forms of body art and decoration practiced by the teddy boys, rocker, hippies, Hell's Angels, and punks are forms of protest against whatever society stands for. It has always been like this, and now it is ironic to see how Avant- Garde artists are increasingly reverting to the style of primitive tattooing and the wealth of their forms in their designs. These, which have for centuries been considered vulgar and concealed beneath the so-called modern and civilized society.

In France, films like Pepe le Moko made between the two world wars, Le Tatoue filmed in 1968, and more recently, a film by a Japanese director The Tattooed Woman led to a resurgence of tattooing. This last film made in1982 talks about how a beautiful woman with snow-white skin was tattooed with the words "Pact with death or with fidelity" to please her lover. Throughout the film, her pain is mixed with orgasm. The old master tattooist forces her to make love to his assistant while he drives the needles into her soft skin. The assistant penetrates the beauty according to his master's commands. Each contraction of the muscles due to the penetration of the needles in her skin tightens her embrace until pain becomes inseparable from pleasure. It is a journey undertaken in silence, eroticism, and endurance.

Celebrities and even politicians of the time were tattooed. Lenin, who bore a skull on his chest, Stalin, a red star. Churchill was tattooed with the coat of arms of his ancestors. Montgomery had a butterfly on his forearm. There are many others like Roosevelt, Count Tolstoy, and Tito. More recently, the show business has taken up tattooing in a big way. Gerard Depardieu, Cher, Beatrice Dalle, Sean Connery, Pamela Anderson and many others. Needless to mention all the Pop and Rock stars who exhibit their tattoos on every possible occasion. Lenny Kravitz, Jon Bon Jovi, Metallica's James Hetfield, Ozzy Osbourne, Led Zeppelin's Robert Plant, and thousands of others who belong to the "brotherhood".

The tattoos available in previous decades had been fairly homogeneous, varying only on the tattooist. But the growing acceptance of custom designs promoted all kinds of experimentation in the 1960s and 1970s. Like fine art, many individual designs soon emerged with certain artists becoming famous for specific types of work. This way, a new client-artist relationship developed. Instead of choosing a design out of many, customers consulted with their artist upon the work to be done. Just like in Graphic Design, the target is to sell the client something convenient for the subject at hand with a full discussion of the price, type of execution, style, color and size. The tattoo is discussed at length; preliminary sketches are reviewed and modified until the final artwork is ready for execution.

From a technical point of view, the tattoo artist has plenty to master. In contrast to conventional art, the canvas of the tattoo artist is not a flat white surface. So an understanding of anatomy, color, line and form has to be perfected. Moreover in this field there is no room for error. It is a field, which offers no classes, courses and demands licensing, or diploma, a field choking with competition. Gaining access to training is not easy. This competitiveness is understandable viewed in the light of how crowded the market is with tattoo artists. In the States only, there are about ten thousand working tattoo artists. Sure anyone could buy a tattoo machine and practice on their friends and they, however not all build up a respectable reputation nor does everyone do first class tattooing. There are a lot of "scratchers" currently on the market doing what is called "street work" and that is doing the art of tattooing a lot of harm. Partly because of the pricing, which becomes incredibly cheap in comparison to the higher prices charged by established and qualified artists.

Now, congresses and competitions are being held on a weekly basis. In these events people from all walks of life meet and intermingle. Tattoo artists compare their styles and techniques seeking to improve their output. They attract curious observers many of whom succumb to temptation and end up leaving with a tattoo- the beginning of a future fresco.

A second wave of tattooing is now being widely accepted and practiced all over the western world. Piercing, scarification, and branding are the latest in the fashion. Tattoos by renowned artists are being collected on people's bodies like paintings on the wall. New and good talent is always welcome and sought after from coast to coast. Tattoo conventions and good talent is always welcome and sought after from coast to coast. Tattoo conventions and exhibitions are held frequently. There are nearly a dozen tattoo related magazines sitting at the newsstands spreading new ideas and designs for both artists and tattoo fans. Tattooists frequently visit each other for long extended periods sharing and exchanging ideas. Even old flash sheets are being sold again in galleries for hundreds of dollars as collector's items on the folk art circuit. Now many of the pre 1960s old scholars bemoan the trendiest that has overtaken their once renegade world. Articles of protest are being printed in tattoo magazines against the commercializing of the tattoo related equipment focusing on the fact that not anybody should have access to this form of art which those people fought so hard for during the days where it was condemned by the majority. Never the less, tattooing, since the end of the last century has been considered a thing of the outlaws and marginal people despite the fact that some celebrities bear tattoos as a mark of originality and individuality. For most people, even now, it remains a sign linked with marginal groups and delinquent behavior. It is still considered by the majority as immoral. Tattooing is called," the convict's flower" in French, and this reflects that tattooing is above all, a language of defiance.

Just like the graffiti, tattooing is a means of expression for the person who is seeking to break free from the norms of society. It is a wild, untamed, provocative and instinctive form of expression. Which rejects rules and breaks the laws. How ironic, tattooing among the primitive people was the custom, and if one wasn't tattooed he was considered out!

Like the art world at large, the tattoo world has its own customs and creative trends. At the moment tribal designs are being revived. Concurrently, there is a big demand for futuristic science fiction creations. These are ranging from gruesome and satanic monsters to biomechanical wonders. Contemporary artists like H.R. Giger (of Alien movie) and Robert Williams are having their work enthusiastically appropriated by the tattoo world. Classic artists like van Gogh, Duchamps, Da Vinci, Picasso, Michelangelo, Dali, M.C. Escher and many others have their work tattooed somewhere on someone. On the other end of the spectrum, elements of hip-hop and graffiti culture have crept in with blocky brash lettering and dazzling flashy colors that reflect contemporary pop culture. In another dimension, some tattoo artists are using elements from Arabic calligraphy. On the other hand, tribal tattooing is readily accepted, that which is still practiced today by the Dayaks and the Mentawi. Above all, tattooing is the art of translating passion and the fixing of emotions. It is a life long dedication filled with determination and strong will against the changing winds of time. It is a game of no fear, it embodies great love and a definite standard of living and strong convictions. It is the game of the rebellious and the majority rejects those who stand alone in their society, for whatever reason, people with a strong sense of orientation and who dare show their passion. This is the human nature and it is universal found in all kinds of people in any profession even among artists (Graphic Designers) who are supposed to be outcasts from their own society themselves!!!

Etymology
The word "Tattoo" is obviously of no Latin origin. It is basically of a Polynesian one, a word long used by the natives. They use the word "tatau" in reference to the marks they inscribe on their bodies. "Tatua" is a word composed of two parts, "ta" which means drawing, and "toua" referring to spirit. This indicates the role of the tattoo or "tatau" which provides a link between the tattooed person and the afterworld, or spiritual world. There are some other explanations concerning the origin of the word, however no matter which one you may adopt, it is evidently clear that tattooing has some sort of a link with the afterworld. In certain ancient cultures the tattoo is a test of personal courage and value. He who tries to avoid getting one, is condemned and banished as a coward; ironically, it is quite the opposite in our "civilized world".

According to a technical definition, the tattoo is the introduction of foreign material under the epidermis at varying depths to form a certain design. Obviously, this foreign material is the pigment. Pigment derived from plant and animal organs. Thus forming a permanent trace, which the bearer carries for the rest of his life. This however does not refer to scarification, a process practiced on dark skin. Scarification, by definition means the incision producing a raised layer in the skin in the form of a design or pattern. This sculpts the body. Tattooing on the other hand emphasizes on the contrast achieved with black or other colors on light skin.

In any case, both tattooing and scarification are forms of mutilating the body, very much in the same line of the decorations adopted by our modern civilizations. Masks, make-up and clothes however, the tattoo's permanent and irrevocable character is the real price one pays.

15

TECHNIQUE

The technique of the tattoo has practically remained unchanged ever since its first invention. Fundamentally it is the introduction of color under the skin using a sharp instrument, which could be a needle, or a piece of sharpened wood or bone, nowadays, an electric tattoo machine. This machine works on the same principle however; it is much faster (2000 to 4000 prickings per minute). The needle penetrates the skin at a depth of about one tenth of an inch, depositing the colors in the inner layers of the epidermis. The kind of pigment used for the tattoo depends on the country. China ink is the most commonly used. Black soot, lamp black mixed with water, saliva, and even urine!! For colors, ground pieces of colored sand and animal remains were used. Nowadays sterilized colors are being used for all parts of the body.

At the present day, with the widespread of this art, many different artists specialize in many different styles. Some, who do strictly flash designs, others who do classical, or tribal, futuristic, gory, macabre, custom, fine line, American traditional.... Some tattoos give the impression of an oil painting, others look like they have been airbrushed, some look like watercolor, or even charcoal. Unfortunately, the purchase of a tattoo machine is very easy, so almost anyone with a good budget could buy one. However not everyone could become a competent tattoo artist. The tattoo art requires a lot of patience on the part of the tattoo artist, commitment and precision. Most importantly, a thorough knowledge of the properties of the skin, the pigment, and the machine. Not to mention the properties of good design, and illustration. That is why there are a lot of amateurs or "scratchers" who do what is known as street-work. This in general is very bad for the art that has always been in a critical position, and has been for a very long time trying to step out of the shadows and get recognized as an established form of art. These scratchers not only do bad designs, and very poor execution (for a cheaper price), but also help through their ignorance of the importance of sterilization to spread disease among customers.

REFERENCES
Grognard, C. (1994). The Tattoo, London : Sunburst Books.
Lautman, V. (1994). The New Tattoo, New York, NW: Abbeville Press.
Thevoz, M. (1984). Le Corps Peint, Geneve: Albert Skira S.A.
Survey, 1996.